Plot and Character Analysis of The Story of An Hour by Kate Chopin Essay

Plot and Character Analysis of The Story of An Hour by Kate Chopin - Essay Example special attention given to just how the story is to be told, authors can open the story to a variety of interpretations illustrating the complexities of life during a particular period in history. A close examination of Kate Chopin’s short story â€Å"The Story of an Hour† illustrates how the written word can be a powerful representation of the weight of social constraints on women during this period in time. In this very short story, Chopin shows how her main character, Louise Mallard, was effectively dehumanized by the expectations of role fulfillment imposed upon her by her husband and her society. The story begins by illustrating the perceived condition of Louise’s health as she reportedly has a weak heart. â€Å"It was her sister Josephine who told her, in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing† (Chopin). What her sister Josephine told her was that Louise’s husband was killed in a recent railroad accident, information that had been confirmed by a close family friend. Louise’s reaction to the news is remarked as somewhat surprising, but takes on greater significance later in the story. â€Å"She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister’s arms† (Chopin). From this point, there isn’t a great deal of physical action to the story. Louise retires to her room alone and sits in a chair looking out the window. As she reflects upon the news she has just received, Louise begins to see the remainder of her life in ways that might have been highly unexpected at the time. Instead of feeling that he r life was over because her husband is dead, Louise begins to see her life as just beginning. She will finally have a chance to make some of her own decisions. Although her life has been turned upside down, Chopin demonstrates through Louise’s thoughts that her world had already been upside down under the external conditions she’d been forced to accept and only now, with the death of her husband, was it righting

Ulcerative colitis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Ulcerative colitis - Essay Example 2006). This paper will be divided into two main categories, whereby the first category will outline the characteristics and nature of Ulcerative Colitis. There will be a thorough discussion of what the disease is and what it is not in terms of its similarities and differences to Crohn's disease, as well as according to its prognosis. The second category will highlight the skills of a nurse necessary in managing patients affected by this disorder. In such, there will be a clear definition of the management and care that is justified with rationale and scientific explanation. The second category will also address the case study present. It is the intent of this paper to establish a complete understanding of the disease as well as the medical management aspect that is vital to the kind of care provided to patients. More than 500,000 Americans suffer each year from ulcerative colitis, Like Crohn's disease; it can be painful and debilitating and sometimes lead to life-threatening complications. This is according to the Mayo Clinic. Thus the case at hand presents Claire O'Brien, a 32 years old female admitted for possible bowel obstruction and passing of watery stools with bright red blood every 2 to hours. Initial diagnosis purports ulcerative colitis thus prompting the patient for immediate surgery, undergoing colon resection and formation of the colostomy. She is wheeled in to the ward under my care with an Intravenous Line, and has been ordered for a nasogastric tube insertion. Thus a question is raised at this point, what then is Ulcerative Colitis, and how does this disorder affect a person The answer lies in the discussion of the pathophysiology of this disease with emphasis to its etymology, symptoms and prognosis. Ulcerative Colitis is a non-specific inflammatory condition of the colon, a disease that begins often between the ages 20 and 25 years of age but may affect both young and old alike (Cotran, ET al.p776.1999). This tends to have flare-ups that later settles down again for variable amounts of time, yet it is possible to have a single attack. This disease usually begins in the rectum and spreads proximally, affecting primarily the mucosal layer, although it can extend into the lower submucosal layer. The length of proximal extension varies and may involve the rectum alone, thus called ulcerative proctitis, the rectum and sigmoid colon thus called proctosigmoiditis, or the entire colon otherwise known as pancolitis. The inflammatory process tends to be confluent and continuous instead of skipping areas, as it does in Crohn's disease. But unlike Crohn's disease that affects various sites in the gastrointestinal tract, Ulcerative Colitis is confined to the rectum and the colon. Both illnes ses though do have one strong feature in common. They are marked with an abnormal response by the body's immune system. The immune system is composed of various cells and proteins that protect the body from infection. With inflammatory bowel disease the immune system react inappropriately mistaking food, bacteria and other materials in the intestine for a foreign invading substance and thus

The Lives Of Others Film Studies Essay

The Lives Of Others Film Studies Essay The Lives of Others is set in 1984 East Berlin, five years before Gorbachevs glasnost policies, and the fall of the Berlin Wall. The film centers on the East German Ministry for State Security, which is a secret police known as the Stasi, created by the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in an attempt to maintain its power and protect the survival of Socialism in East Berlin. The secret police force consisted of 100,000 investigators and over 200,000 informants. The Stasi investigated any and all citizens in Berlin who posed a threat to socialism. The investigations often included wiretapping and tailgating, with every action being meticulously documented. As a result of the Stasi, those who were found guilty were arrested, interrogated, imprisoned, and in many cases, blacklisted. In the film, loyal Stasi officer Hauptmann Gerd Wiesler is assigned to spy on playwright Georg Dreyman. Wiesler wiretaps the apartment, and investigates Dreymans activities, writing a detailed report every ev ening. Fear is a common theme throughout the film. Every citizen fears the GDR and the Stasi, knowing that their lives can be critically altered if they do not oblige to the system placed before them. Early in the film we see Dreyman neighbor watching the surveillance team bug his apartment. Wiesler is aware of the womans observations and provides strict orders for her to keep quiet, and reminds her of the consequences if she does not obey. Later in the film the Dreyman asks the woman to help him with his tie, and the neighbor is uneasy about associating herself with Dreyman because she does not want to be associated with him. That scene conveys a message about how a Stasi investigation can harm not only a persons career but their social lives as well. Dreymans friend and former director Albert Jerska is an example of how the Stasi can damage and destroy an individuals life. Jerska was once a prominent stage director with an optimistic outlook on life, after an investigation Jerska was blac klisted and could never direct again. The effects of his blacklisting affected the way others treated him, as they wished to distance themselves from him in fear of the Stasi. As a result of the Stasi, Jerska lost all hope in life and took his own life in order to escape the restrictions placed on him under the GDR. The power of blacklisting is displayed maliciously in the film, as Dreyman girlfriend, Christa-Maria Sieland is forced to become an informant for the Stasi in order to preserve her career as an actress. That scene offers the audience and explanation on how the GDR was capable of convincing citizens to report on their friends and family. Hauptmann Gerd Wiesler, the loyal Stasi investigator, is an example of the ideal German citizen in the GDR. He is introduced as an educator, teaching his students how to become Stasi investigators. He never doubts the GDR and shows no mercy in fighting the enemies of socialism. His personal life in the film conveys a message of what life was like for the investigators living the socialist lifestyle in the GDR. Wiesler lives a lonely life in a dull apartment, eating food from a tube, and watching the evening news. His life is dedicated to the GDR and because of that, his life is empty. To suppress his loneliness, Wiesler orders prostitutes to fill the void in his life. Listening to the lives of others makes Wiesler aware of his loneliness, and he compares his life to Dreyman, envying his happiness. After discovering the motives behind the investigation, Wiesler cannot help but feel compassion for the writer he is spying on, and ignores Dreymans anti socialist actions in his nightly re ports. Although Wiesler is a loyal socialist, he becomes dissatisfied with the Minister of the GDR, and questions the ethical reasons behind government monitoring. Within a few months, he went from a proud socialist citizen to an apathetic Stasi employee. In November 1989, the GDR police unexpectedly opened the borders in Berlin, and reunited east and West Germany. Germans began tearing down the Berlin Wall and were making way for reunification. The end of the GDR marked a turning point for capitalism in East Germany. The film Goodbye Lenin! centers on Alex, a young man whos proud socialist mother falls into a coma weeks before the fall of the Berlin wall. Eight months later, she wakes up in the unified Germany, but has no idea that these changes have happened. The doctors explain her fragile condition to Alex, explaining that any excitement could lead to a fatal relapse. Alex and his sister Ariane are placed as caregivers to their mother and are forced to come up with creative ways to keep their mother from discovering the truth that everything she believed in has collapsed. Different from the Lives of Others, this story follows the lives of an ordinary East Berlin family struggling to cope with the changing world. Goodbye Lenin! is set during the fall of the Berlin Wall, which allows the audience to witness the changes in East Germany and how they affect the population. By opening up to the western world, Berlin was introduced to capitalist markets, and easterners wanted to become a part of it. The film displays how the youths in East Germany were more excited about the reunification than the older generation. The young people traveled to the west for the first time, and viewed West Germany as though it was a huge shopping mall. Ariane represents the younger generation, and how the youth was attracted to consumerism due to the division. Ariane changes her style from the old bleak colors of the GDR and adopts the bright colors of the west. She even starts changing things around the house by throwing away all the furniture and piling it outside with the rest. The new open market economy offered a variety of products from different brands allowing citizens to purchase items of higher quality that had not previously been available. There is a scene in the film in which Alex is desperately trying to maintain the illusion that the GDR still exists, while Ariane grows upset with his behavior because she prefers the new products. She makes a statement about the diapers in the scene explaining how the ones from the old GDR are of poor quality and how she prefers to use the new ones that are available. Ariane is eager to adopt change since it is completely new to her, and she makes choices that are not always in her best interest, such as leaving the university to sell hamburgers at Burger King. The actions made by Ariane represent how eager the East Germans were to get rid of socialism but failed to question how the German economy will be affected by the reunification. The former and the new economic system displaced many citizens, especially those who were most comfortable with the GDR. Following the fall of the wall, citizens in the East experienced massive unemployment due to the overcrowded job market. In the film, Alex finds a new job by submitting his name into a job lottery, which he is lucky enough to win. The unemployed characters in the film, mostly the older generation, have a difficult time adapting because everything they believed in was over. Economic change not only effected employment but also the currency of the former GDR. After discovering the location of his mothers money, Alex goes to the bank to convert the old currency into deutschmarks only to learn that the deadline has passed. Alex immediately becomes distressed when he discovers that his mothers life savings had become useless pieces of paper. That scene reminds the audience that although East Germany has been freed from socialist oppression, they now face new economic ch allenges. The cultural wave of capitalism that Germans openly support is the same capitalism that has destroyed the savings of millions. Throughout the film, Alex is desperately trying to maintain the illusion that the GDR still exists for the sake of his mother. He seeks out old food brands, forces everyone to wear the old style of clothing, and creates fictional TV report. His extreme tactic to preserve a world for his mother is not so different from the way she raised him. In the most powerful scene in the film, Alexs mother confesses the truth about his father. She reveals that she had once had a plan to move the family to West Berlin to meet with their father, but changed her mind because she feared the GDR. Her confession challenges everything her children were taught to believe, as she reveals that her loyalty towards the GDR was not genuine, but was instead a product of fear. She never left for Berlin and dedicated her life to socialism to ensure that her children would not be taken away from her. The mothers confession relates to the Lives of Others because it displays the fear that ordinary citizen felt towa rds the Stasi and the GDR. Goodbye Lenin! tells a fun, heartfelt story about an ordinary family during the reunification of Germany. The power of the Stasi and the influence they have on people is depicted very gently in the film. The director shows the forcefulness of the agents and how they would go about investigating a home, but failed to show how and why the Stasi provoked fear, and instead relied on the audiences memories of the horrific past. The film pokes fun at the old system of the east while conveying the hardships that citizens experienced in a pleasant and family-friendly tone. The film did not accurately represent the dark time in the German past. The Lives of Others on the other hand, is a harsh, realistic depiction of the dark side of former East Germany. The film has a darker tone and is shot with low lighting to convey the dreary feeling of what it was like to live in East Germany. The films story included death, drugs, and corruption to accurately portray Germanys past. The most disturbing aspect in the films are the scenes with Stasi officers discussing surveillance operations. Their conversations are casual, and spying on the lives of others is an everyday norm. The Lives of Others and Goodbye Lenin! are two films that allow an audience to relive Germanys gloomy past. The films displayed every aspect of life in East Germany, and the restrictions citizens faced. The clothing available to the Germans were dull and grey, and the single product markets demonstrate how oppressed these people were, and they all knew it. On the other side of the wall capitalism flourished, and citizens were not forced to follow a government they did not support. It is this unbelievable to think that twenty years ago such oppressive governments existed throughout Europe. It is important for films like these to be made to show people around the world the realities of what it was like to live during the GDR.

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT Essay -- essays research papers

What do you understand by the phrase â€Å"stakeholder analysis†? Attempt a stakeholder analysis of an organisation that you are closely associated with. Introduction Stakeholder analysis is important for successful implementation of projects and/or strategic activities within any organisation. It is used to analyse the stakeholders in order to understand them and classify them according to their power, influence and interest. Stakeholders are people who have an interest in a commercial entity including those within the organisation and outside. These include the boss, senior executives, customers, suppliers, government, your co-workers, the team and others. All these people are important in the implementation and success of strategy. The tool stakeholder analysis is used to: - †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify people or groups and institutions that will influence your initiative †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Anticipate the kind of influence, positive or negative, these groups will have on your initiative †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Develop strategies to get the most effective support possible for your initiative and reduce any obstacles to successful implementation of your program. The following are steps that may be followed in using stakeholder analysis: INDENTFY THE STAKEHOLDERS There is need to think of all people who are to be affected by the project or strategy, those who have influence or power over it or have an interest in its successful or unsuccessful conclusion. Stake holders for Delta corporation include:-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Government departments( Zimra, RBZ, Min of industry trade and commerce, ministry of sports and culture)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Municipal authorities   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Standards association   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Customers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Employees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Management   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trade union   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  National employment council   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Directors and shareholders   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Suppliers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The community and the public   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My family and extended family   &... ...nbsp;  Ã‚  Who else might be influenced by their opinions? Do these people become stakeholders in their own right? Talking directly to the stakeholders will help answer most of these key questions. For IT projects meeting the key stakeholders in a forum to review progress on the project is key to its success. Therefore a well drawn up project plan will ensure that there is enough representation of the stakeholders at the regular project review meetings. Identify those stakeholders that may try to bring to a halt or slowdown the successful implementation of the project. CONCLUSION In any project it is important to do a stakeholder analysis in order to be able to identify the stakeholders and prioritise them by power and their interest to the success of the strategy or project. Once you identify them there is need to fully understand what motivates them in this project and what might be done to get their much needed support, thereby reducing obstacles to successful implementation. There maybe need to dangle carrots in order to get buy in from key stake holders. Incentives and rewards goes a long way in motivating other stakeholders to get results oriented effort.

Importance of movement in child development Essay

In a Montessori Tides classroom, there are carefully designed didactic materials that incorporate all the senses in the learning process. The hands which, according to Dr. Maria Montessori, â€Å"are the instruments of man’s intelligence,† work together with the mind. Freedom of movement grants the child the opportunity to observe and explore the prepared environment. Constantly the Montessori child actively uses and refines her senses as she absorbs the world around, while the child in the traditional classroom is generally confined to her desk, left almost exclusively to listen. The child in a Montessori Tides classroom is thus an active rather than a passive learner, who makes good use of all her senses while freely moving about the prepared environment. Furthermore, movement is connected to spiritual development. Physical activity nurtures the whole being, including the spirit. Montessori acknowledged, â€Å"If muscles which should normally be functioning are dorma nt, there is not only a physical, but a psychic depression as well. This is why action can have an influence also upon one’s spiritual energies.† Without activity a child energy supply is depleted, causing learning to be a more difficult task than it would be if there was a freedom to move. Dr. Montessori emphasized, â€Å"In fact, it is only by movement that the personality can express itself.† Freedom of movement clearly relates to freedom in general. Montessori believed that a child who is in control of herself, prepared to make rational choices and resist fleeting, illogical temptations is free. Consequently, freedom goes hand-in-hand with responsibility and self-discipline. Within the prepared environment, the child is allowed to develop her focus, become self-disciplined, and act responsibly. She is thereby able to become truly free. It is a catch 22 though; a child must initially be given freedom to learn to exercise responsibly, as a child in a Montessori Tides classroom is. She is free to move and make choices about her learning. There are limits, however; she is certainly not free to waste her days and disturb other children. â€Å"A child who is free to act not only seeks to gather sensible impressions from his environment but he also shows a love for exactitude in the carrying out of his actions.† In essence, freedom, including freedom of movement, permits a child to act responsibly, and responsibility, in turn, brings about true freedom. Finally, movement ties together the physical, intellectual, and spiritual being. It keeps the entire person healthy. Both the spirit and the  intellect depend on action to gather ideas and express themselves. The â€Å"child is a discoverer† by nature, and it is through this active discovery that she learns. The Montessori Method takes advantage of this by offering the child freedom of movement. Actually freedom of movement is a significant portion of the whole notion of freedom found in the Montessori Tides classroom, and it along with sensory education pave the way for developing the intellect as well as the spirit. â€Å"Through movement, [the child] acts upon his external environment and thus carries out his own personal mission in the world.†

Expansion Essay Essay

There were two presidents that did a great deal for our country in the area of expansion. These two presidents are Thomas Jefferson and James K. Polk. Though they had completely different policies on expansion and foreign affairs, both of them vastly expanded the country. Jefferson was a believer in the Monroe Doctrine which basically said we will mind our own busi ness. He was also a very firm believer in a strict interpretation of the constitution. He did not look to vastly expand our country and when the opportunity presented itself he had a hard time making the right decision. The United States was surrounded by European owned areas: England had Canada, Spain had Florida, and France had Louisiana. Fearing a possible war Jefferson strengthened the army especially by Louisiana. This act scared Napoleon, he was in a war with England and didn’t even need the Louisiana Territory, so fearing a war with the U.S. and needing money for his war with England he offered to sell the wh ole Louisi ana Territory to us for very cheap. Jefferson not sure if the constitution justified the act of making this purchase struggled with the decision. He decided he didn’t have much of a choice and accepted Napoleons offer. On the other hand, James K. Polk was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, which was the belief that the United States was predestined to control all of North America. When Polk ran in the 1844 election his campaign slogan was 54-40 or fight. Though he never got that boundary he did get a lot more in different parts of the country. After Texas revolted from Mexico Polk was easy to convince that the U.S. should step in and take Texas from Mexico. Though he wanted Texas he felt that the greatest prize would be California. After Mexico repeatedly declined Polk’s offers to buy Mexico and California Polk sent an army to the Rio Grande. This action led to the Mexican War. Polk pushed and pushed for Texas and California which after thirteen thousand American lives and fifty thousand Mexican lives were lost he got his land. Both of these presidents expanded the area of our country a tremendously. Jefferson’s policies on expansion kept us out of war and doubled the size of our country with great land that would be much needed in coming years. Polk didn’t keep us out of war but he got us a lot. He gained the United States half a million acres of prime land. Texas was an excellent producer of cotton and other crops, while Califor nia was abundant in gold causing the gold rush where thousands of men would head west to California in search of gold. Though Polk and Jefferson had almost opposite policies, in the area of expansion, they both ac quired much land for the United States. Jefferson, the believer in the Monroe Doctrine, and Polk the believer in Manifest Destiny, probably would not have agreed with each other but both did a lot of good for our country.

Handiwork - Sample Common Application Essay - Option #1

Handiwork - Sample Common Application Essay - Option #1 The prompt for option #1 of the 2018-19  Common Application states, Some students have a background, identity, interest, or talent that is so meaningful they believe their application would be incomplete without it. If this sounds like you, then please share your story. Vanessa wrote the following essay in response to the prompt: Handiwork I made slipcovers for my doll house furniture when I was ten. I had a nice matching set for the living room- a sofa, an arm chair, and an ottoman- all in a gray and pink floral pattern. I didn’t dislike the furniture, but on a rainy Saturday, I decided it was time to switch things up a little bit, so I dug out some scrap material- navy blue- along with some thread, a needle, and a pair of scissors from my mother’s sewing desk. A few days later, my doll house family had a nice, newly reupholstered living room set. I’ve always been a crafter. From the early days of Kindergarten macaroni ornaments, to making my own prom dress last year, I’ve had a knack for creating things. For drafting sketches, drawing plans, making calculations, gathering supplies, adding finishing touches. There is something so satisfying about holding something you, and you alone, have made- something that was just an image in your mind until you set about to bring it into existence, to create something new, something different. I’m sure there are hundreds of doll furniture sets out there in that same gray and pink, but there is only one with fitted (albeit with sloppy stitching) navy blue covers. There’s a sense of pride there, however small. I’ve been lucky to have the time, the energy, and the resources to be artistic, to craft things. My family has always encouraged my efforts whether I be sewing a Christmas gift or building a bookcase. As my projects have evolved, I’ve come to realize that making things, useful or otherwise, is very much an important part of who I am. It allows me to make use of my imagination, creativity, logic, and technical skills. And it’s not just about making something for the sake of making something. I feel a connection to my mother’s family, from a rural village in Sweden, when I make candles. I feel a connection to my grandmother, who passed away last year, when I use the thimble she gave me when I was thirteen. I feel resourceful when I use leftover wood scraps from our new barn to make coasters for the coffee table. Crafting for me is not just a hobby, not something I do when I’m bored. It’s a way to use my environment, to discover tools, and shortcuts, and new ways of looking at things. It’s a chance for me to use my head and my hands to make something pretty, or practical, or fun. I don’t plan on majoring in art, architecture, design, or anything remotely craft-based. I don’t want it to be my career. I think a part of me is worried that I’ll lose my love of making things if there’s homework involved, or if I have to rely on it for a paycheck. I want it to stay a pastime, to stay a way for me to relax, enjoy myself, and cultivate a sense of independence. I’ll never stop being a crafty person- I’ll always have a box of colored pencils, or a sewing kit, or a cordless drill on hand. I don’t know where I’ll be in twenty years, or even ten. But I know wherever I am, whatever I’m doing, I will be the person I am because of that little girl, patiently sewing together tiny pieces of fabric on her bedroom floor: creating something great, something new, something entirely her own. _____________________ A Critique of Vanessa's Essay In this critique, well look at the features of Vanessas  essay that make it shine as well as a few areas that could use improvement. The Essay Title If you read the tips for essay titles, youll find that Vanessa’s title fits within one of the recommended strategies: it is clear, succinct, and straightforward. We quickly know what the essay is about. Granted, her title isn’t creative, but creative titles aren’t always the best approach. With some exceptions, too much cleverness or puniness in a title tends to please the writer much more than the reader.  The short title has the added advantage that it isnt adding much to the word count. Keep in mind that the title counts towards the length limit. The Length For the 2018-19 academic year, the Common Application essay has a word limit of 650 and a minimum length of 250 words. At 575 words, Vanessas essay falls at the upper end of this range. This is a good place to be. Youll certainly come across college counselors who adhere to the belief that less is always more, that the admissions staff is so overwhelmed with applications that they greatly appreciate a 300-word essay. There is certainly truth to the idea that a tight 300-word essay is far preferable to a wordy, rambling, fluffy 650-word essay. However, better yet is a tight, engaging essay in the 500 to 650 word range. If a college truly has holistic admissions, the admissions folks want to get to know you as an individual. They can learn a lot more in 600 words than 300. There is no consensus on the ideal essay length, but Vanessas essay is certainly fine on this front. The Topic Vanessa has avoided all of the bad essay topics, and she is wise to have focused on something for which she has true passion. Her essay tells us about a side of her personality that may not be apparent from the rest of her application. Also, the subtext of Vanessas essay could work in her favor. Vanessas description of her love of crafts says a lot about her: she is good with her hands and working with tools; she has acquired hands-on skills designing, drawing, and drafting; she is creative and resourceful; she takes pride in her work. These are all skills and personality traits that will serve her well in college. Her essay may be talking about handiwork, but it is also providing evidence of her ability to handle the challenges of college-level work. Weaknesses Overall, Vanessa has written a fine essay, but it is not without a few short-comings. With a little revision, she could get rid of some of the  vague language. Specifically, she uses the words things and something numerous times. The biggest concern has to do with the last paragraph of Vanessas essay. It could leave the admissions folks asking  why  Vanessa does not want to make her passion into her major or her career. In many cases, the most successful people are those who have turned their passions into their professions. A reader of Vanessas essay is likely to think she would make an excellent mechanical engineer or art student, yet her essay seems to reject these options. Also, if Vanessa loves working with her hands so much, why not push herself to develop those skills further? The idea that â€Å"homework† might cause her to â€Å"lose [her] love of making things† makes sense on one hand, but there’s a danger in that statement as well: it suggests that Vanessa doesn’t like homework. The Overall Impression Vanessas essay succeeds on many fronts. Keep in mind why a college asks for an essay. If a college wants to see more than your grades and standardized test scores, it means the school has a holistic admissions process. They want to get to know you as a whole person, so they want to give you a space to reveal something about yourself that may not come across in the other areas of your application. They also want to make sure you can write in a clear and engaging manner. Vanessa succeeds on both fronts. Also, the tone and voice we find in Vanessas essay reveals her to be an intelligent, creative, and passionate person. Ultimately, no matter what essay option you choose for the Common Application, the admissions committee is asking the same thing: Is this applicant someone who we think will contribute to our campus community in a positive and meaningful way? With Vanessas essay, the answer is yes. Want to Learn More About Common Application Essay Option #1? Along with Vanessas essay above, be sure to check out Carries essay Give Goth a Chance and Charlies essay My Dads.  The essays demonstrate that you can approach this essay prompt in extremely different ways. You can also check out tips and sample essays for the other Common Application essay prompts.

Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Example

Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Example Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Avicenna on Induction M. A. Ejeii University of Isfahan ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to discuss Avicennas deductive justification of induction. The paper introduces Avicennaâ„ ¢s theory of induction as a post-falsificationist theory of his time, and then proceeds to discuss a distinction he has made between induction and experience. The paper then discusses the theory and focuses on some of the problems related to Avicennaâ„ ¢s claim that our belief in inductive generalization is based on a deductive structure, and differentiates it from a view criticized by Hume. The paper ends up with a short comparison of what Avicenna, Hume and Ayer say on the kind justification in question. Keywords: Avicenna, Ayer, Hume, Induction, Experience, deductive justification, Principle of Plenitude. Introduction Inductive reasoning is discussed in almost all Avicennaâ„ ¢s logical works.[1] But his most detailed discussion of induction occurs in his encyclopedic work Al-Shifa (The Healing), in Kitab al-Burhan (Book of Demonstration). For the purpose of our current discussion it is important to note that, prior to Avicennaâ„ ¢s time, there had been some philosophical discussion of the problem of induction, and various attempts to find justification for inductive knowledge. Among these theories there had also existed a falsificationist view to which Al-Farabi (d. 950/51), Avicennaâ„ ¢s predecessor, adhered. The following excerpt, which the writer found in one of his logical works, corroborates the point: And there are some others who wanted to validate (tas-hih, making sound/correct) the major premise through induction, but when they found that induction is inadequate for that purpose, a point, which we have frequently made in what we said before, they rejected induction as a means for justifying that premise, and used it instead to falsify it.[2] Now, one can safely assume that Avicenna had been quite familiar with the views of his well known predecessor and the kind of critical approach to the problem of induction that al-Farabi is talking about, As a result, Avcennaâ„ ¢s own treatment of the problem can be seen as comparable to that of the post-falsificationist theorists of our own time. Thus his suggestions can be found relevant to current discussions of the problem and contribute to discussions. Unfortunately there is no further reference to, and information on this topic in al-Farabiâ„ ¢s extant works, but assuming Avicennas familiarity with those discussions and works, his treatment of the problem can be seen comparable to the post-falsificationist theorists of our time, that in their treatment of induction have reverted to concepts of causality and essences. [3] 1. Experience vs. Induction Avicennaâ„ ¢s deductive justification of induction Inductive reasoning is discussed in almost all Avicennas logical works. But his most detailed discussion of induction occurs in his encyclopedic work Al-Shtfa (The Healing), in Kitab al-Burhan (Book of Demonstration). The cornerstone of Avicennas theory of inductive reasoning is a distinction he makes between experience and incomplete induction. According to him experience is a rationally justified procedure, while (incomplete) induction is not. In Al-Najat (Deliverance) he defines induction as a judgment about a universal, inasmuch as it is realized in its particularsâ„ ¢.[4] The definition is intended to cover both complete and incomplete induction in their Aristotelian sense. Hence Avicenna immediately proceeds to divide induction thus defined into two kinds, complete and incomplete: either in all particulars, which will be a complete induction, or in some of them, and this will be an incomplete inductionâ„ ¢. The undivided sense is in agreement with Aristotleâ„ ¢s definition of induction as stated in Topics, i.e. a passage from individuals to universalsâ„ ¢. It also accords with induction as discussed in Prior Analytics, i.e., a passage from all the species of a genus to a generalization about the genus itself.â„ ¢ The inadequacy of incomplete induction is emphasized in almost all of Avicennaâ„ ¢s logical works. Here is a quotation from his Daneshnameh (Book of Knowledge): And when those who indulge in inductive reasoning observe that many or most cases are of a certain attribute, they conclude that all are so. But the conclusion does not necessarily hold true, since it may be that the unobserved instances are contrary to the observed ones, and while a hundred thousand instances agree, yet there may be another that doesnâ„ ¢t. This is exemplified by the case of crocodile, which moves its upper jaw [when chewing], and not its lower one.[5] Having rejected (incomplete) induction as a means of justifying empirical generalizations, Avicenna, instead describes a partially similar procedure which he calls experienceâ„ ¢. While by definition not a species of deduction, experience, nevertheless, exhibits a deductive structure. In short, the process of attaining certainty in empirical generalizations, according to Avicenna, starts with the observation of particulars, and then reaches its conclusion through a deductive mode of thought, a deduction that elsewhere calls concealed (or imperceived) deduction.[6] It is due to the introduction of this deductive mode that experience differs from induction and the conclusion of an inductive reasoning is in fact justified. But what exactly is this concealed or imperceived inference Avicennas characterization suggests a natural explanation. However, in order to explain the details it will be convenient to rely as much as possible on Avicennas texts. This, of course, calls for lengthy quotations, but due to the importance of the point in question the reader, hopefully, will find it rewarding. In the following quotation Avicenna first illustrates the difference between induction and experience by an example, and then discusses some objections to, and possible misunderstandings of, his method he experience and the concealed inference involved. So let us start with his argument for the method of experience: Experience, however, is different from induction. And we shall soon explain what the difference consists in. Experience is like drawing the conclusion: scammony is purgative of bile. Surely when that happens frequently enough, it cannot any longer be considered as a matter of coincidence. So we make the judgment that it is in the nature (Shaâ„ ¢n) of scammony to be purgative of bile, and we are assured of that. [7] Further down, on the same page, but in another connection, Avicenna states the same argument in slightly different words: When it is verified repeatedly that the purging of bile follows the administration of scammony, we will conclude that this cannot be regarded as a matter of coincidence. Since what is coincidentally true cannot occur always or frequently. Thus we conclude that it is caused by scammony. The above argument uses as its major premise the principle What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢. This premise together with the frequently observed fact that administration of scammony is followed by the purging of bile, yields the conclusion: scammony is purgative of bile. The argument is thus, a hypothetical syllogism and has the form of: (1) p ( ~ q, ~ ~ q, /( ~ p The argument (1) is a deductive one, but it is not to be confused with another argument, also called deductive, discussed often in the literature, and propounded first by Hume in order to criticize it. We shall discuss that argument in part 3 below. The argument (1) also called concealed or imperceived deduction, lies at the ground of our belief in empirical generalizations. Now for example, when under the familiar same circumstances a sufficient number of cases of administration of scammony were followed by purging of bile, due to the concealed argument (1) with the major premise What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢ results in the conclusion Scammony is purgative of bileâ„ ¢. The first premise says if things did occur as a matter of coincidence then it would not be that they occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢. Now, negating the consequent (canceling double negation) we shall have: therefore the course of events in question is not a matte r of coincidenceâ„ ¢, i.e., Scammony is purgative of bile. Thus, when a sufficient number of observations made of the administration of scion being followed by purging of bile, or that water boils when heated to a certain temperature, then under the conditions described below in part 2, on the ground of general principle of causation and in the form of Modus Tollens one concludes the generalization that `Scammony is purgative of bile`, or ` water boils when heated to a certain temperature`. Avicennaâ„ ¢s example is a typical causal law, i.e., a law that mentions a cause and an effect. It, however, can be easily generalized to the so called functional relationship, like the one which exits in the gas law in its classic form, and which establishes a relation between the volume, temperature, and (external and internal) pressure of a gas. The general form of the concealed argument, of course, remains the same as in (1). It seems to me, though I will not argue it here, that the principle that whatever is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢ is related somehow to the Principle of Plenitude according to which everything that is possible will also some time come true. Avicenna seems to be committed to this principle in Al-Shifa. In that book he always equates possibility with being sometimes true and necessity with being always true.[8] However there is another suggestion for the origin of the principle. Professor Weinberg has suggested that the principle is directly derived from Aristotle. Professor Weinberg does not mention any reference to Aristotleâ„ ¢s works, but his suggestion is supported by Aristotleâ„ ¢s text in his discussion of the four causes, in Physics, II, where he talks about chance and spontaneity. I shall return to this issue in the appendix. 2. Explanation and Further Elucidation We shall now turn to a question that is essential to Avicennaâ„ ¢s theory of induction, and of which he is concerned to clear up some possible confusion. Here again I shall quote first a passage in which he summarizes his method from the end of his discussion in al-Shifa, and then explain various points he makes by adding further details. In the quotation that follows the numbers have been inserted to demarcate the different elements of his theory. He writes: What we are saying is this: [1] Often, as a result of experience, we find ourselves in a state of certainty, and we want to explicate the circumstances under which the certainty is attained. [2] This happens when we are assured that nothing accidental is taken into account, and [3] this in turn will be the case when the properties of the object are known to us, and [4] we find out that when the object exists some other thing always or often follows, and that when the object does not exist, that other thing does not follow either.[9] [1] makes it explicit that Avicenna is not skeptic about the possibility of knowledge. Thus his aim is the central goal of doing philosophy of science, i.e., to explain and validate scientific knowledge. In his words the question is, under what circumstances the state of certainty in scientific knowledge is attained [2] and [3] are essential to his view and state the circumstances under which the generalizations are arrived at and lead to certainty. The term accidental, as it occurs in [2], is used in its widest sense, meaning, not causing the effect. As an example of this, he mentions a generalization about scammony being purgative of bile, when the plant is grown in certain countries, but not in others. According to him, the generalization fails because something accidental to the situation is mistaken for what is essential. He writes: Thus nor do we deny that scammony may acquire, or lack, some specific nature or characteristic in some regions such that it may not be purgative of bile. Rather the experiential judgment must be as follows: the scammony of the kind known to us at present, and through our senses, is, by its nature, or because of a certain property in it, purgative of bile, unless an impediment intervenes. [10] In other words the generalization is not about scommony absolutely or under any condition, it is rather about the kind presently known to us, and through our senses. The argument is that if scammoy under such and such condition were not purgative of bile, this would not have happened often or regularly. The conditions include for example the property of being scammony grown in some specific region, and not just being scammony. He offers a similar explanation when he discusses another counterexample adduced by a critic. The counterexample has resulted from an imagined observation made in Sudan, where it is supposed that no other men but the colored are in sight and they are the only people that appear to the senses. Upon repeated observations, the critic continues, one should conclude the false generalization that All men are coloredâ„ ¢. Discussing this counterexample, Avicenna explains the observation here is not being carried out just among human beings, as is implied by the con clusion, but among human beings under such and such conditions, or from such and such parents.. He writes: In short, if by birth is taken [to mean] as being born of colored people, or born in such and such a country the experiential judgment will hold true. But if the conclusion is taken generally, i.e. as being born of people, then the conclusion will not hold with regard to the particulars referred to. For the experience has been carried out among colored people and not just among people, and these two are not the same things.[11] Thus [2] constitutes Avicennaâ„ ¢s diagnosis for all cases in which experience leads to error, These are cases in which something accidental is taken into account, namely what is not really a cause is taken as a necessary or a sufficient condition for the phenomenon in question. However, he mentions that if the characteristic is coextensive with the one under investigation, the conclusion will hold in connection with it also. It is for this reason and other disturbing conditions that Avicenna is prepared to accept that experience can sometimes lead to error: We never maintain that experience is immune from error, and that it always leads to certainty. How can that be maintained, while even syllogistic inferences are not exempt from error[12] In order to arrive at elements that are essential to a causal connection, (3) is introduced. According to (3), to achieve a correct generalization the properties of the object must be known to us. This is required in order to determine the properties from whose existence the effect follows, and also to eliminate the possibility of there being some other factors that are essential but not taken into account. The certainty will obtain to the extent that we are assured the initial conditions obtain and are the same as those that existed in our observations. This of course will not affect the deductive structure of inductive reasoning described earlier. [4] states the concealed deduction. The central question about the major premise is, is that proposition analytic or synthetic To complete our discussion of the state of Avicennaâ„ ¢s deductive justification of inductive generalizations, two further points must be discussed. The first concerns the indispensability of deduction in inductive generalizations, and the second pertains to the hypothetical nature of generalizations thus arrived at. Avicenna evidently does not here mean that inductive generalization is purely a deductive process, but only that without the deduction generalization will not be formed. He writes: It is not by reason of the frequency of the observed instances alone that the universal judgment in question is formed, but rather as a result of frequently observed effect, together with the deduction we have just mentioned.[13] The above point is important, since some people think that the deduction in question is not needed.[14] Avicenna flatly rejects the idea that induction is purely enumerative or self-supporting. The above point is the basis of his whole theory of experience. Another point is the kind of relevance the concealed deduction bears to experiential generalization. According to Avicenna if the deduction were not to be formed, the certainty invested through observation would not be imparted to the conclusion. A next point concerns the hypothetical nature of inductive generalization obtained; the conclusion itself is hypothetical and not categorical. As a limitative aspect of his experiential method, Avicenna is much concerned to point out that the generalities thus arrived at are not absolute, but conditional, conditional upon the existence of the circumstances in which observations have been carried out. It follows, that the subsequent application of the laws in question will hold true only in cases where the circumstances under which the generalization is made obtain. Such laws, then, will not take the simple form, If x is an instance of scammony, then, given that it is prescribed, it will be purgative of bile, but the much more restrictive form: If x is an instance of the scammony of the kind k observed in this region which is here and now present to our senses, then, given k, it will be purgative of bile, unless an impediment intervenes. This in part is to ensure that the condition (2) holds. In this connection Avicenna writes: The judgment will hold universally only under those conditions in which the experience is being made, and the frequently observed property of the object will pertain to the nature of the object permanently only in the region in which the observation has been carried out. And that will be the case unless an impediment intervenes. Thus the universal judgment formed through experience will hold true under these conditions, and not absolutely.[15] But isnâ„ ¢t the condition only in the region ¦Ã¢â€ž ¢ too restrictive In other words, does not the condition make the conclusion unduly restricted in scope, and thus quite unsuitable to be used as a premise in demonstrative sciences The answer is that the conclusion will not be restricted in scope in the sense in which the statement all the hair on my head is blackâ„ ¢ is. Rather it is restricted in the sense that the statement all hair having the same condition the hair on my head has, is blackâ„ ¢ is restricted. In fact, he wants to see generalizations thus obtained as supported by corresponding true counterfactuals. He writes: However if the subject matter is of a specific nature, then the specific quality may be what has been effective in the majority of instances available to us in our observations. This will no doubt prevent the conclusion from being unrestrictedly general, and requires it to be more specific with regard to the nature of the things observed. Failure to see this point can make the result of experience erroneous with respect to generality. Although in cases like that we are assured that an object, which is so and so will be such and such, we are never assured that, if any thing is so and so then it will be such and such.[16] 3. A Note on a Criticism of Deductive Justification of Induction. An objection has been sometimes raised against a version of deductive justification that differs fundamentally from the one discussed by Avicenna. The version in question is first discussed by Hume in order to criticize it. It uses the principle that Nature is uniform as its major premise. Ayer raises an objection to Hume suggestion and argues that if the deduction thus formed is accepted it can prove too much, and it would have unexpected consequences. We shall briefly discuss Ayerâ„ ¢s objection in order to show that Avicennaâ„ ¢s deductive justification is not open to this kind of criticism. A. J. Ayer in his Probability and Evidence, discussing various stages of Humeâ„ ¢s skeptical argument, at a certain stage finds himself obliged to part company with himâ„ ¢. This is where Hume, discussing the problem we are dealing with, holds that to make an inductive conclusion valid we need as an extra premises the principle that instances of which we have had no experience must resemble those of which we have had experience and that the course of nature continues always uniformly the sameâ„ ¢. Ayer adds: The obvious objection is that a principle so general as the one that Hume advocates cannot possibly do the work that is here required of it. We cannot validate the inference form all observed As are Bs to All As are Bs by adding as a major premises Nature is uniform`. The syllogism `Nature is uniform`, `All hitherto observed swans have been white`, therefore `All swans are white` is not to be rejected as John Stuart Mill maintained, just because the minor premise turned out to be false and so landed us with a false conclusion. It was invalid all along.[17] Ayerâ„ ¢s contention here is that the syllogism `Nature is uniform`, `All hitherto observed swans have been white`, therefore `All swans are white` is not invalid either because its major premise is false as Hume thinks, or because its minor premise is false as Mill says, but because the syllogism is formally invalid. Given that the universe is uniform and that All hitherto observed swans have been whiteâ„ ¢ it would not logically follow that `All swans are white`. Thus the argument is to be rejected not because some of its premises are invalid, but because the inference has not a valid form. Ayer continues: But of course such discoveries are not taken as refuting the uniformity of nature. They are taken only as proving that the uniformities that nature exhibits are in some respects different from what we had supposed them to be. Not `All swans are white` but `All swans are nonchromatic`, or, All swans are white under such and such conditionsâ„ ¢, or black, under such and such other conditions.[18] These few lines are in complete agreement with what Avicenna has to say in the presence of a falsifying situation. The discovery of non-colored human beings was explained by saying that being born of human parents is not a sufficient condition for a newly born human being to be colored. It is interesting to note that the language and the example used here by Ayer are pretty much the same as the ones used by Avicenna : Ayer uses the example here to refute the deductive justification of induction, but Avicenna uses his example to remove a possible misunderstanding concerning his proposed method. According to Avicenna the conclusion is false not because its major is false, but because the conditions under which the observations are made are not taken into account in the conclusion. Here Ayer seems to interpret uniformity of natureâ„ ¢ in its weak sense, while as it is obvious from the context of Millâ„ ¢s argument, he actually uses the phrase in a stronger sense, in which it means uniformity under the specific circumstances where the experience is madeâ„ ¢. Leaving this point aside, to be sure, Ayer is right in holding the deductive generalization cannot be validated by adding as its major premises Nature is uniform`, since this would not be a valid argument form. In contrast, the deduction described by Avicenna is of Modus Tollens form, and valid. Its major premise is based on a general principle of causation to the effect that every event has a sufficient cause. The generalizations thus obtained are of course, According to Avicenna, not absolute and unconditional, but restricted and hypothetical. To return to the example Ayer discusses, the correct generalization would not be: All swans are whiteâ„ ¢, but All swans begotten from white parent swans are whiteâ„ ¢, etc.. According to Avicenna, when this condition is not satisfied, the experience can only yield probable judgmentâ„ ¢.[19] A similar point can be made in connection with Humeâ„ ¢s remark when he writes, The bread which I formerly ate nourished me; that is, a body of such sensible qualities was, at that time, endued with such secret powers. But does it follow that other bread must also nourish me at another time, and that like sensible qualities must always be attended with like secret powers The consequence seems nowise necessary. Avicenna would agree that the consequence is not necessary. As in the case of his own examples, the universal judgment, he would say, will hold true only under certain conditions, and not absolutely. In the case of Humeâ„ ¢s specific example Avicenna would say, it is not just a body of such sensible qualities absolutely and without further qualification that would be taken as attended by the power of nourishment, but along with it there are some other conditions that are determined and operative. These conditions may be partially or even wholly unknown to us and neglected, and this explains why experience sometimes errs. As we noted in part 2, Avicenna said that the conclusion (about scammony) will follow if it is restricted to the scammony grown in certain countries, and is of the kind known to us at present. According to him, the generalization fails because something accidental is mistaken for what is essential. This was the same point made by Ayer about what has gone wrong with the generalization All swans are white. Appendix At the end of chap. 4 of his Physics, II, Aristotle proposes to discuss the question what chance and spontaneity areâ„ ¢, and asks whether or not they can be reckoned among the division of causes.[20] The following chap. starts by: First then we observe that some things always come to pass in the same way, and others for the most part. It is clearly of neither of these that chance is said to be the cause, nor can the effect of chance be identified with any of the things that come to pass by necessity and always, or for the most part. This and similar passages in these chapters must be what people have taken as expressing the principle, What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢. But a careful examination of these passages will leave no doubt that what Aristotle has intended here is not a principle from which one can infer individual inductive laws. his thesis about language has been turned into a thesis about the world. He continues, however, not only have there been some philosophers who have mentioned chance among the causes, but there is, he reports, a further circumstance that is surprising: people often speak of events that occur by chance. He writes: Many things both come to be and are by chance and spontaneity, and although they know that each of them can be ascribed to some cause ¦nevertheless they speak of some of these things as happening by chance and others not.[21] Elsewhere, but in the same connection, Aristotle mentions as a case of chance the example of a man who, coming by chanceâ„ ¢ into the market and finding there a man whom one wanted, but did not expect to meetâ„ ¢.[22] In this circumstance the meeting of the man is described as a chance event. Now the surprising circumstance, according to Aristotle, is that while some people believe that the meeting of the man is not due to chance, yet people often speak of that event as happening by chance. Aristotle thus sets out to analyze the circumstances under which an event is said to be happening by chanceâ„ ¢. The first characteristic he identifies as required for an event to be described as happening by chanceâ„ ¢ is that it should not come to pass by necessity, always or for the most part. Thus he is referring here to a necessary condition under which the expression by chanceâ„ ¢ or its equivalents can apply. If the condition does not obtain, the expression is no longer applicable. If the man who went to the market had met the other man there always or frequently, that particular instance of meeting him would not have been characterized as a matter of coincidenceâ„ ¢, or as occurring by chanceâ„ ¢. Stating these necessary conditions for the application of the term the effect of chanceâ„ ¢ seems to be all that Aristotle has in mind when he says, nor can the effect of chanceâ„ ¢ be identified with any of the things that come to pass by necessity and always, or for the most partâ„ ¢. From this I conclude that Aristotleâ„ ¢s statement is not to be taken to imply that if the circumstance is not of the type to which the expression the effect of chanceâ„ ¢ is applicable, then there is a necessary or causal connection involved in that circumstance. On the contrary, it seems fairly clear that the statement in question describes one of the conditions Aristotle has found necessary for describing an event as happening by chanceâ„ ¢. If this is correct then the principle cannot be used as a ground for justification of inductive generalization. There is yet another condition in this theory to be satisfied, if an event is to be described as happening by chanceâ„ ¢. It must belong to the class of events, [I]n connexion with which the phrase for the sake of something is applicable. (Events that are for the sake of something include whatever may be done as a result of thought or of nature).[23] Thus, according to Aristotle, where both conditions apply the event is said to be happening by chanceâ„ ¢. This means that if the second condition were not satisfied the phrase would not be applicable. That is, it may be that an event is infrequent and rare, and yet not referred to as coming about by chance. From what we have said it is, however, clear that the statement What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢ as it is used by Aristotle is different from that statement as it used by Avicenna. Avicenna wants to employ the statement as a principle underlying our inductive reasoning, and as a ground for establishing the existence of a necessary connection among events that occur always or frequently in a determinate manner. And this is not, as we have observed, the way in which Aristotle uses the principle. When he said due to chanceâ„ ¢ could not be said of the events that occur frequently, what he meant was that when any course of events occurs frequently it can no longer be characterized accidentally. Thus, the principle in question concerns not the presence of a necessary connection, but rather the use of the expression by chanceâ„ ¢ or accidentally. To use that statement for establishing the existence of a causal connection seems to invol ve a misinterpretation of an Aristotelian thesis that is about language as a thesis about the world. Acknowledgement It is a pleasure to record my thanks to Professor Paul Thom and Professor Frank Jackson of ANU who, commented on an early draft of this paper, and to the University of Isfahan that supported the research. References Al-Farabi, (1985/86). Al-Mantiq inda l-Farabi, edited by R. Al-Ajam, 3 vols. Beirut. Aristotle, (1928) Posterior Analytics, translated by G. R. G. Mure, under the editorship of W. D. Ross, Oxford University Press. Aristotle, (1928) Prior Analytics, translated by A.J. Jenkinson, under the editorship of W.D. Ross, Oxford University Press. Aristotle, (1928) Topics, translated by W. A. Pickard-Cambridge, under the editorship of W. D. Ross, Oxford University Press Aristotle, (1930) Physics, translated by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye, under the editorship of W. D. Ross, Oxford University Press. Avicenna, (1956) Al-Shifa: AI-Mantiq. AI-Burhan(Demonstration), Cairo, edited by A. E. Afifi, Cairo. Avicenna, (1964) Al-Shifa, AI-Tabiâ„ ¢yyat (Physics), edited by Sa`id Zayed, Cairo. Avicenna, (1971) Al-lsharat wal-Tanbihat, with Tusiâ„ ¢s Commentary in Margin, edited by S. Dunya, 4 vols., Cairo. Avicenna, (1971) Avicennaâ„ ¢s Treatise on Logic, translated by F. Zabeeh, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Avicenna, (1984) Remarks and Admonitions: Part One: Logic, translated by S. C. Inati, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto, Canada. Avicenna, (1985) Al-Najat, edited by M. T. Daneshpazhooh, Tehran University Press, Tehran. Ayer, A. J. (1972) Probability and Evidence, Macmillan. Cohen, L.J. and Hesse, M. (eds.) (1980) Applications of Inductive Logic, Oxford, Gohlman, W. E. (1974) The Life of Ibn Sina, Albany: SUNY Press Claredon Press. Hume, D. (1955) A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. Selby Bigge, L. A. Oxford. Weinberg, J. R. (1965) Abstraction, Relation, and Induction, University of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsine [1] Avicenna ( Ibn Sina ) lived from 980-1037 AD. For further information on his life, see Gohlman, W. E. (1974). For a detailed discussion of Avicennaâ„ ¢s influence upon Mediaeval philosophers, see Weinberg, J. R. 1965, chap. iii. [2] AL-ajam, R. 1`985/86, Vol. 3 , p. 100. [3] See Cohen, L.J. Hesse, M. 1980, p. viii. [4] See also, Avicenna, 1985, p. 5,: Avicenna, 1984, p. 129,: Avicenna, 1964, p. 557. [5] The translation is made by the author from the Persian original. Also cf F. Zabeeh, 1971, p. 25. Similar remarks can be found in Avicenna, 1984, p. 129. [6] In al-Shifa, he refers to this deduction simply as deduction but in a later work, al-Isharat, he also adds the adjective concealed (or imperceived), perhaps to distinguish it from enthymeme. [7] Avicenna, 1956, p. 95, ff. All my translations into Englishare are made from this edition. [8] It must, however, be said that his last work, Isharat does not support the principle and allows for unrealized possibilities. [9] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [10] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [11] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [12] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [13] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [14] For a servey of Inductive support for induction see Induction by Max Black, in Encyclopedia of Philosophy , ed. Paul Edwaqrds, 1986. [15] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [16] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [17] Ayer, 1972, pp. 20-1. [18] Ibid., p. 21. [19] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [20] Physics, II, 4, 196b 8-9. [21] Physics, II, 4, 196a 12-14. [22] Physics, II, 4, 196a 2-4. [23] Physics, II, 5, 196b 21-23.

British Cuisine

Some people criticize English nutrient. They say it s impossible, deadening, tasteless, it s french friess with everything and wholly overcooked veggies. The basic ingredients, when fresh, are so full of spirit that British have nt had to contrive sauces to mask their natural gustatory sensation. What can compare with fresh urines or new murphies merely boiled and served with butter? Why drown spring lamb in vino or pick and spices, when with merely one or two herbs it is perfectly delightful? If you ask aliens to call some typically English dishes, they will likely state Fish and french friess so halt. It is dissatisfactory, but true that, there is no tradition in England of eating in eating houses, because the nutrient does nt impart itself to such readying. English cookery is found at place. So it is hard to a good English eating house with a sensible monetary values. In most metropoliss in Britain you ll happen Indian, Chinese, Gallic and Italian eating houses. In London you ll besides happen Indonesian, Mexican, Greek Cynics will state that this is because English have no culinary art themselves, but this is non rather the true.# 1040 ; # 1085 ; # 1075 ; # 1083 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; # 1089 ; # 1082 ; # 1072 ; # 1103 ; # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1093 ; # 1085 ; # 1103 ;# 1053 ; # 1077 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1090 ; # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1099 ; # 1077 ; # 1082 ; # 1088 ; # 1080 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1102 ; # 1090 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1075 ; # 1083 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; # 1089 ; # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1102 ; # 1077 ; # 1076 ; # 1091 ; . # 1054 ; # 1085 ; # 1080 ; # 1075 ; # 1086 ; # 1074 ; # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1103 ; # 1090 ; , # 1095 ; # 1090 ; # 1086 ; # 1086 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1077 ; # 1074 ; # 1086 ; # 1079 ; # 1084 ; # 1086 ; # 1078 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; , # 107 3 ; # 1077 ; # 1079 ; # 1074 ; # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1089 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; , # 1095 ; # 1090 ; # 1086 ; # 1101 ; # 1090 ; # 1086 ; # 1095 ; # 1080 ; # 1087 ; # 1089 ; # 1099 ; 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Questions: 1. What do aliens state when they criticize English nutrient? 2. Make English people use a batch of sauces? 3. From a alien s point of position, what typically English dishes? 4. Make all English eat in eating houses? 5. What sort of eating houses can you happen in Britain? 6. Is it the true that English have no culinary art? Vocabulary: to knock # 1082 ; # 1088 ; # 1080 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1074 ; # 1072 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; tasteless # 1073 ; # 1077 ; # 1079 ; # 1074 ; # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1089 ; # 1085 ; # 1099 ; # 1081 ; overcooked # 1087 ; # 1077 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1074 ; # 1072 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1099 ; # 1081 ; ingredient # 1080 ; # 1085 ; # 1075 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1076 ; # 1080 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1090 ; , # 1089 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1072 ; # 1074 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; # 1103 ; # 1095 ; # 1072 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; toinvent # 1080 ; # 1079 ; # 1086 ; # 1073 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1090 ; # 1072 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; sauces # 1089 ; # 1086 ; # 1091 ; # 1089 ; todisguise # 1089 ; # 1082 ; # 1088 ; # 1099 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; spice # 1089 ; # 1087 ; # 1077 ; # 1094 ; # 1080 ; # 1103 ; , # 1087 ; # 1088 ; # 1103 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; herb # 1090 ; # 1088 ; # 1072 ; # 1074 ; # 1072 ; delightful # 1086 ; # 1095 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1100 ; # 1074 ; # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1089 ; # 1085 ; # 1099 ; # 1081 ; let downing # 1086 ; # 1073 ; # 1080 ; # 1076 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; tolend # 1086 ; # 1076 ; # 1072 ; # 1083 ; # 1078 ; # 1080 ; # 1074 ; # 1072 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; culinary art # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1093 ; # 1085 ; # 1103 ;

Safe Haven by Nicholas Spark Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Safe Haven by Nicholas Spark - Essay Example ie ending up in a small North Carolina town, a grief stricken hero in his thirties, leading a dedicated and restrained life until he is bewitched by a cute damsel, a series of miss happenings amply interspersed with love and romance, a mature confidant bent on making the two lovers cherish each other and strike a romantic bond. However, the good thing about Safe Haven is that these similarities end up only here. Over all Spark has managed to contrive an interesting plot, dexterously placing the events and actions in a tactical way, to yield the expected, yet, engaging emotional and artistic effects. The character of Katie initiates a line of action that depends for its fulfillment on the ignorance of the characters, with whom she is designed to interact during the course of the narrative, leading to imaginable yet ingratiating happenings. In that sense the book does manage to grasp the reader interest and attention. One other thing that makes the book a must read is the element of surprise and risk introduced into it by the writer. In that context, the characterization of Kevin, Katie’s husband is indeed praise worthy and complex. It is only when Kevin enters the plot that it makes the readers’ expectations and apprehensions augment to a peak level, leaving them engaged and interested in knowing about the future course of events, and as to how the two central characters that are Katie and Alex will respond to them. In that sense, Spark does manages to build up a sense of uncertainty amongst the readers, making them establish a kind of bond and commitment with Katie and Alex. This ploy gives way to a sense of suspense and apprehension in the novel, irrespective of the readers being able to decipher as to how the story will or should end. Spark does succeed in giving way to a structure that is predictable, yet, replete with a paradoxical tension, ensuing from diverse situations and possibilities, thereby allowing the writer to play with a willing suspension of

Writing a report about 4 presentations and discuss them each Coursework

Writing a report about 4 presentations and discuss them each presentation 2 pages - Coursework Example n time we may become addicted to the internet and this presentation allowed us to judge our usage of internet and whether we need to take steps to curtail our growing addiction. This topic is very important and should be taken up by every class. In terms of the presentation, I very acutely felt that at this level, groups should not be reading material from their notes or slides. They should come well-prepared. Even though the group was well dressed and presentable, they did not focus on delivering a strong presentation. The group was not very professional in my opinion and one member was too quiet. The final speaker did not seem well-rehearsed. Since the final speaker was not very convincing, at the conclusion, the presentation seemed to fall apart. Since the last part remains in the minds of the viewers the most, the presentation became weak due to this. The beginning and end should always be strong to retain interest of the viewers. The good point of the presentation was the fact that the group was able to properly define the scope of their topic. In this way, they were able to exclude irrelevant information which made the presentation crisp and easy to understand. This also made the conclusion clearer and easier to grasp. However, the presentation lacked a little due to the fact that it was not very interest grabbing. If the group had included case studies in the presentation, the topic would have become more interesting and the students would have taken the concept home. They could have taken people from their own surroundings and researched on them. A profile of these addicts could have been developed which would have made the presentation more appealing to us- the viewers. Apart from that, the research depended on scholarly research which made the research more credible. Additionally, the content was up-to-date and taken from 2011 studies which was another good point. This aspect of the research made it convincing and created a professional look of the

The Government Should Not Cut Education Budgets To solve Its Financial Research Paper

The Government Should Not Cut Education Budgets To solve Its Financial Problems - Research Paper Example The proposed way to give the United States a continued competitive edge in today’s complex world is to give students in the U.S. an excellent education. Educational funding should not be used to solve the national budget crisis because: 1) money needs to be cut from the national defense budget, which is overcompensated; 2) education is too important to be relegated to lesser funding; and 3) cutting the budget for education will promote an elitist society because many people will see an education as a privilege and not a right. A Bloated National Defense Budget Defense spending being cut could be the solution to solving not only the nation’s budget crisis, but could also be used to funnel more money into education as a result. More money for the budget would then allow one to logically then conclude there would be more money for education in the national budget. "Consistent with US military needs and declining threats, defense spending will be cut [emphasis added], which will help reduce the deficit and provide funds to invest for economic growth."1 Unfortunately, military spending in the United States has gotten out of control. â€Å"Government control over the military's budget is also deficient, because the government lacks the ability to estimate the army's needs and to evaluate the manner in which its budget is utilized.†2 First when Pres. George W. Bush invaded Iraq without consulting Congress or the international community, he pledged American troops to eight years of combat in Iraq—from which the country still has not recovered. It has been ten years that the United States has been engaged in combat in Afghanistan as well. Both wars have drained the U.S. of its budget surplus which was in effect when Pres. Bill Clinton left office. That surplus quickly dwindled with the advent of the two wars. If less money was spent on wars and more money was pumped into education, perhaps schools all across the country would not require rest ructuring due to failing Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) benchmarks since the advent of the No Child Left Behind Act. America, frankly speaking, must prioritize in order to realize what is really important—having an educated public to make good decisions, or keeping the American people safe from all the possible dangers of the world by getting involved in every major conflict in the globe that could potentially endanger vested U.S. interests. These are difficult choices but they must be made, because the country’s energies are being divided in a haphazard fashion. Education: Too Important to Ignore The problems began when President Bush got elected to office in 2000 and started whittling down the surplus Bill Clinton had left behind when he left the office of the President—severely making cuts to education. â€Å"[President Bush’s] budget cut†¦funding for elementary and secondary education, denying 3.2 million children the extra reading and math help they were promised by the so-called No Child Left Behind Act.†3 Although President Barack Obama came to office in January of 2009 promising â€Å"change,† unfortunately he is also making cuts to education, including grants for history. â€Å"The President’s fiscal year 2012 budget request for the Department of Education once again eliminates Teaching American History Grants (TAH) as a separately funded program†¦

Lessons Learned of the Vietnam War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lessons Learned of the Vietnam War - Essay Example The Vietnam War serves as one of the most dominant and influential international conflicts appeared after the Second Great War (Mahajan, 2003) on the horizons of the world, encompassing the Far East in its fold, and leaving an indelible impact of its horrible consequences in the entire region as well as on the rest of the world at large. Started during the climax of Cold War (Arora 2002) between the then two strategic Super Powers i.e. the USSR and USA, the war lasted for twenty long years from 1955 to 1975, and ended in the heavy losses of men and material of the invaded Vietnam as well as the complete humiliation and degradation of the invader USA eventually. Although, the American administration and forces applied every possible strategy and even military brutality on the country, particularly the Mai Lai catastrophic massacre (Fallows 2009) , yet the defensive state, along with its forces and masses belonging to this small Far East state of Vietnam, did not surrender one single i nch of their territorial boundaries; at last their exemplary fortitude, unflinching will-power and unabated determination forced the US military might to surrender and hence paved the way for the cessation and exit of the American troops from their country at last. The Lessons America Learnt:The analysts, since the aftermath of the Vietnam War onward, remained engaged in making investigations of the causes behind the failure of the US mission in a country, which apparently looked a very easy target, though turned out to be a hard nut to crack; even its population, economic position and military force was far lesser in comparison with the American might. Consequently, discovering the chronicles of events that turned the US invasion over Vietnam as nightmare for her had turned to be a moot point to be discussed at every forum for the future years to come. One of the most fatal mistakes committed by the invading country was sending a huge army of almost 3 million US men and women thous ands of miles away from their fatherland in order to fight a foreign soil just for stopping the advancement of communism from entering the northern part of Vietnam (Anghie 2007).5 Actually the US foreign strategy remained revolving around creating certain impediments on the way to the advancements of Communist Russia; in order to keep an overwhelming majority of the world sovereign-states under the US influence and economic subjugation as well.6 Consequently, protection of her economic system capitalism served to be the most vital issue for the Americans, for the security of which the US leadership dragged the military personnel into a certain inferno, which cost the lives of over 2.5 million people on both the warring sides eventually (Kalyvas & Kocher 2003). Hence, the Americans fought a fruitless war hundreds of miles away from their home in order to tame a small Asian state by wasting a huge amount of dollars for a useless pursuit. It is therefore the USA has assured the least c hances of the occurrence of deaths

Marketing transportation homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Marketing transportation homework - Essay Example 2. The two logistic activities that I have settled on include the communication and the transaction processing in companies. The internet has influenced these sectors to a large extent, some being positive while others negative. For instance, communication has been improved and the presence of smart phones has enhanced even attendance in meetings without the presence of an individual. The transactions that exist and occur in businesses has developed to be online. Some issues like theft have come up as many individuals are lured into believing that the sellers are genuine while in real sense are being duped. These issues are quite surprising as one gets to realize that, just like any other solution, the internet has its demerits too. 3. There are many macro level challenges that have come up as a result of technological advancements. For instance, lack of good record keeping due to lack of attending meetings, the opposition to technological development faced by the managers from the employees. The other challenge includes the introduction of more portable devices yet this makes the information more insecure as the level of being prone to theft is much higher and increased. 1. The corporate level strategy is aimed at overseeing the management of the company, the objectives and aims of the business and the type of business in the company. The strategic level plays the role of intermediaries between the business and the managers. They develop strategies and match the needs with the people who will perform the functions to attain the goals of the company. The functional level is where the real work is done. This is the section whereby the logistics and calculations are performed in terms of the objectives of the company. 2. Logistic strategy is not directly connected to the corporate strategy but is influenced through the strategies of the business

The Government Should Not Cut Education Budgets To solve Its Financial Research Paper

The Government Should Not Cut Education Budgets To solve Its Financial Problems - Research Paper Example The proposed way to give the United States a continued competitive edge in today’s complex world is to give students in the U.S. an excellent education. Educational funding should not be used to solve the national budget crisis because: 1) money needs to be cut from the national defense budget, which is overcompensated; 2) education is too important to be relegated to lesser funding; and 3) cutting the budget for education will promote an elitist society because many people will see an education as a privilege and not a right. A Bloated National Defense Budget Defense spending being cut could be the solution to solving not only the nation’s budget crisis, but could also be used to funnel more money into education as a result. More money for the budget would then allow one to logically then conclude there would be more money for education in the national budget. "Consistent with US military needs and declining threats, defense spending will be cut [emphasis added], which will help reduce the deficit and provide funds to invest for economic growth."1 Unfortunately, military spending in the United States has gotten out of control. â€Å"Government control over the military's budget is also deficient, because the government lacks the ability to estimate the army's needs and to evaluate the manner in which its budget is utilized.†2 First when Pres. George W. Bush invaded Iraq without consulting Congress or the international community, he pledged American troops to eight years of combat in Iraq—from which the country still has not recovered. It has been ten years that the United States has been engaged in combat in Afghanistan as well. Both wars have drained the U.S. of its budget surplus which was in effect when Pres. Bill Clinton left office. That surplus quickly dwindled with the advent of the two wars. If less money was spent on wars and more money was pumped into education, perhaps schools all across the country would not require rest ructuring due to failing Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) benchmarks since the advent of the No Child Left Behind Act. America, frankly speaking, must prioritize in order to realize what is really important—having an educated public to make good decisions, or keeping the American people safe from all the possible dangers of the world by getting involved in every major conflict in the globe that could potentially endanger vested U.S. interests. These are difficult choices but they must be made, because the country’s energies are being divided in a haphazard fashion. Education: Too Important to Ignore The problems began when President Bush got elected to office in 2000 and started whittling down the surplus Bill Clinton had left behind when he left the office of the President—severely making cuts to education. â€Å"[President Bush’s] budget cut†¦funding for elementary and secondary education, denying 3.2 million children the extra reading and math help they were promised by the so-called No Child Left Behind Act.†3 Although President Barack Obama came to office in January of 2009 promising â€Å"change,† unfortunately he is also making cuts to education, including grants for history. â€Å"The President’s fiscal year 2012 budget request for the Department of Education once again eliminates Teaching American History Grants (TAH) as a separately funded program†¦

Marketing transportation homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Marketing transportation homework - Essay Example 2. The two logistic activities that I have settled on include the communication and the transaction processing in companies. The internet has influenced these sectors to a large extent, some being positive while others negative. For instance, communication has been improved and the presence of smart phones has enhanced even attendance in meetings without the presence of an individual. The transactions that exist and occur in businesses has developed to be online. Some issues like theft have come up as many individuals are lured into believing that the sellers are genuine while in real sense are being duped. These issues are quite surprising as one gets to realize that, just like any other solution, the internet has its demerits too. 3. There are many macro level challenges that have come up as a result of technological advancements. For instance, lack of good record keeping due to lack of attending meetings, the opposition to technological development faced by the managers from the employees. The other challenge includes the introduction of more portable devices yet this makes the information more insecure as the level of being prone to theft is much higher and increased. 1. The corporate level strategy is aimed at overseeing the management of the company, the objectives and aims of the business and the type of business in the company. The strategic level plays the role of intermediaries between the business and the managers. They develop strategies and match the needs with the people who will perform the functions to attain the goals of the company. The functional level is where the real work is done. This is the section whereby the logistics and calculations are performed in terms of the objectives of the company. 2. Logistic strategy is not directly connected to the corporate strategy but is influenced through the strategies of the business

African Americans and Politics Essay Example for Free

African Americans and Politics Essay For decades African Americans have faced struggles throughout history. Most notably, African Americans were involved in slavery, suffrage, and the civil rights movement. These struggles were very visible and everyone was aware of what was going on. However, now African Americans are involved in a struggle that it not visible and recognizable. This is a struggle that is used to capitalize on wealth and prevent African American families and individuals from living normal lives. They are involved in environmental racism. Environmental racism â€Å"refers to intentional or unintentional racial discrimination in the enforcement of environmental rules and regulations, the intentional or unintentional targeting of minority communities for the siting of polluting industries, or the exclusion of minority groups from public and private boards, commissions, and regulatory bodies. †[1] This form of racism has been plaguing African American communities for years and most people have not taken notice. There are many form of environmental racism; however, this paper will specifically address redlining, blockbusting, racial profiling, and housing segregation and how each has impacted the African American community. Redlining is the act of refusing or increasing the cost of services such as loans, insurance, banking, and access to healthcare to citizens based upon race. The practice involves taking a map and drawing a red line through neighborhoods where banks would not invest money. Redlining was used to segregate African Americans in the housing, workforce, and school market. Parents had to find work in other areas of the city because there were not any resources available in the community. Because of redlining, schools became over crowded with 50 students crammed into one classroom. With the schools overcrowded, teachers were not able to provide special attention to the needy students and other students became uncontrollable. Cathy Cohen would argue that African Americans were being marginalized in the school system. To be considered marginalized means, to have continuously been denied access to dominant resources, barred from full participation in dominant institutions, and defined as â€Å"others, â€Å" living outside the norm and values agreed upon by society (Cohen 1999). African American students were all forced to go to one school in the community to keep them out of the White schools. Along with marginalization, Blacks were, and still are, a part of a power struggle. Blacks were seen, and will always be seen, as an inferior race. Also, Blacks have been disempowered knowingly and unknowingly. African-Americans have been taken advantage of and used to make other races feel superior. Blockbusting was a practice used by real estate agents and developers in the United States to encourage white property owners to sell their homes by giving the impression that minority groups (such as African Americans) were moving into their previously racially segregated neighborhood. [2] When African Americans began to move into the inner city, fear arose that they were an economic threat. Blockbusting was also the cause of many White Americans moving into the suburbs. The practice of blockbusting involved an African American purchasing a home for very cheap in a predominately White neighborhood. The real estate broker would contact the White residents and offer to buy their houses for quick cash and resell the house to an African American family for much higher. Real estate agents claimed that African Americans moving into a predominately White neighborhood would cause property values to go down and urged White homeowners to sell as soon as possible. Real estate agents indicated that the property values would go down because African Americans would not keep up their property, avoid lawn care, and if would affect the entire neighborhood. This practice has caused major shifts in urban neighborhoods, especially Chicago, in recent decades. The Blockbusting methods were profitable and became common across the nation. For example, by 1962, when blockbusting had been in practice for fifteen years, Chicago had over 100 operators and the city had been changing an average of two to three blocks a week for several years. Blockbusting is the reason why cities such as Chicago are now predominately African American and the surrounding suburbs are predominately White. Blockbusting caused African Americans to be marginalized as well. They were denied fair participation in the housing market. Real estate agents inflated housing prices for African Americans to gain commission. White homeowners already had prejudices about African Americans and the real estate agents only made the situation worse. The stereotypes that Black families do not take care of their property was the main reason White homeowners sold their homes. Racial profiling is â€Å"the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime or an illegal act or to behave in a predictable manner. †[3] The practice of racial profiling is a huge problem in the United States. African Americans are usually the targeted victims in the act of racial profiling. It is believed that an African American driver will be more likely stopped than a White driver. Some police officers share the belief that Black drivers will most likely possess an illegal substance of committing an illegal act. However, policemen argue that they do not base their arrests on race but are greatening their probability of a successful search. Some policemen also argue that the probability of catching a Black offender is greater than catching a White offender. Whether the statement is true or not, it places a bias on African Americans and White Americans. The belief that African Americans men are more likely to commit crimes is unfair and not true. One cannot base the behavior of all African American men on the ones that have done wrong and been imprisoned. Another belief of racial profiling is it is the cause of the racial disparities in the American prison system. There are many more African American men in the jail system than there are White men. The previous statement is mostly likely to be true. Because some policemen hold biases and have prejudices against African Americans, it will cause more African Americans to be placed in the jail system. Another instance of racial profiling involved African Americans owning nice material possessions such as a car or a house and African Americans being in a predominately White neighborhood. For example, in an episode of Family Matters, Eddie was in his car travelling through a predominately White neighborhood and was pulled over by the police for â€Å"failure to signal. † However, the routine traffic stop turned into nothing more than a beating for young Eddie. The significance of the episode shows that racial profiling does exist in the United States and it takes place every day. The practice has impacted African Americans because hundreds of innocent people have been harassed and humiliated by police officers simply because of their race. The most recent national example of environmental racism occurred when Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans in 2005. When New Orleans was flooded with tons of water, there were no relief efforts for days and almost a week. Many believed this was due to the fact that majority of the New Orleans population was African American. The population was basically ignored for days until the help decided to come. Citizens of New Orleans were faced with intentional racism and were denied help for several days. This has impacted African Americans because many people died because of the heat, starvation, and disease from the water. African-Americans have been marginalized for centuries. To be considered marginalized means, to have continuously been denied access to dominant resources, barred from full participation in dominant institutions, and defined as â€Å"others, â€Å" living outside the norm and values agreed upon by society (Cohen 1999). Most recently, African-Americans were marginalized in regards to the outbreak of HIV/AIDS. While HIV/AIDS was once considered to be the disease of white gay men, Blacks are now the center of the epidemic. With the turn of the new millennium, the outbreak of AIDS in the Black community has soared. Black men who consider themselves to be â€Å"down low† are the center of the rising epidemic. The men have intercourse with other men while continuing to have intercourse with their female partners thus spreading the AIDS virus. Even though the soaring rate is shocking, there has been limited response from the African-American community. One can argue that Blacks have been marginalized from the resources to treat the epidemic. However, the Black community seems to be ignoring the spreading AIDS virus and focusing more on electing a Black president and high blood pressure. While both electing a Black president and lowering high blood pressure are important issues, similar emphasis should be put on the rising AIDS epidemic. In a sense, African-Americans have marginalized themselves from dealing with AIDS. Continuing to turn a cold shoulder to the issue will not fix the problem. Although Blacks are being marginalized when it comes to AIDS, they are also marginalized when it comes to property and social relationships. For example, when it comes to receiving bank loans, African-Americans is marginalized heavily. Some bank loan officers practice redlining which causes Black residents, whether qualified or not, to be denied loans for property. By using the redlining technique, bank loan officers are marginalizing Blacks from being able to own their own property. Relating back to the AIDS epidemic, Black men were marginalized for having the virus. For instance, if a Black man was open about his homosexuality would be marginalized heavily. Homophobia could be a valid reason for the marginalization of Black men. With open homosexuality, an African-American could be left out from participating in activities and denied being recognized as a normal individual. Homophobia could damage an individual’s social life and leave him feeling disempowered. [4] Along with marginalization, Blacks were, and still are, a part of a power struggle. Blacks were seen, and will always be seen, as lower than Whites. Also, Blacks have been disempowered knowingly and unknowingly, which is the center of environmental racism. African-Americans have been taken advantage of and used to gain wealth and keep at the bottom of the ladder. In short, there are many types of power struggles. One does not have to see power to know that it is taking place. [5] For instance, being called an inferior race is a power struggle within itself. African-Americans that believe that they are actually inferior will begin to act that way. They will begin to doubt themselves and their abilities in life. Once they have it in their mindset that they are inferior, it will cause them to act that way. Housing Segregation is â€Å"the practice of denying African American or other minority groups equal access to housing through the process of misinformation, denial of realty and financing services, and racial steering. †[6] The act of housing discrimination involves real estate agents and landlords not providing African American families with an accurate account of available housing. Housing segregation happens when landlords and real estate agents lure White Americans to available housing only in white communities, and African Americans to Black or diverse and mixed communities. The realtor and landlord usually work together in the process and will agree not to tell the African Americans about the available units in the European American communities. This process goes back to the assumption that African Americans residents will bring down the property value of homes in the neighborhood because they will not take care of their own property. Housing segregation is intentional racism that excludes African Americans from participating fairly in the housing market. Black families should be able to live wherever they please without regardless of the demographics of the neighborhood. With all that African Americans have been through, environmental racism should not be ignored or taken lightly. People should take heed to the practice and fight for what is right. All of the above forms of environmental racism have plagued the African American community. It has caused a major shift in the urban cities such as Chicago. Real estate agents have inflated the costs of housing for Black families moving into predominantly White areas. African American families can fight the issues by becoming more aware of their surroundings and becoming familiar with the practices. They can hire good lawyers to defend them and fight for justice. With regards to the AIDS epidemic, African Americans have been marginalized when it comes to resources and thus leads to environmental racism. African American of the new generation, as a whole, should stand together and fight the justice that was promised to them in the United States Constitution. [1] Dictionary. com [2] Dictionary. com [3] Dictionary. com [4] Cathy J. Cohen, The Boundaries of Blackness (The University of Chicago Press) 47-48. [5] John Gaventa, Power and Powerlessness (The University of Illinois Press) 1-32. [6] Dictionary. com.